Peanut butter

History and Canadian Origins

The earliest known peanut paste was made by Aztec and Inca civilizations, with reports that 16th century Aztecs used it for aching gums. The modern production process, however, has clear Canadian origins. Marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal, Quebec, obtained the first patent for a method of producing peanut butter from roasted peanuts using heated surfaces in 1884. His patent described milling roasted peanuts until they reached a fluid or semi-fluid state, then cooling the mixture to achieve a consistency like butter, lard, or ointment. Edson also added sugar to harden the paste's consistency, an early precursor to sweetened varieties.

Other figures contributed to peanut butter's development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. American John Harvey Kellogg, an advocate of plant-based diets, patented a process using boiled peanuts in 1898 and served the product at his Western Health Reform Institute to patients who needed protein without chewing. A businessman from St. Louis, George Bayle, began selling it as a snack food in 1894. Key technological advancements followed, including Dr. Ambrose Straub's 1903 patent for a peanut-butter-making machine and Joseph L. Rosefield's 1922 invention of a process using partially hydrogenated oil to prevent separation.

Rosefield's invention was commercially important, he licensed it to the company that created Peter Pan peanut butter in 1928, and in 1932 began producing his own under the Skippy brand. Under Skippy, he developed a churning method for smoother butter and created the first chunky-style by mixing in peanut fragments. Later, Procter & Gamble launched Jif in 1955, using sugar and molasses for a sweeter taste. Peanut butter's popularity grew during periods like the 1917 meat rationing in the United States, where government promotions of meatless Mondays made it a favoured choice.

Its name varies globally due to historical product forms. In the Dutch language, it is called 'pindakaas' or peanut cheese, a term originating from a similar, solid peanut paste named 'pinda-dokkunnu' made in the Dutch colony of Suriname as early as 1783. When peanut butter was introduced in the Netherlands in 1948, it could not legally be called butter, a term reserved for dairy products. In South Africa, production began in 1926 in Potgietersrus by Alderton Limited, with the brand Black Cat later taking over manufacture under Tiger Brands.

Production Process

Peanut butter production begins with planting peanuts in spring. They are harvested from late August to October while the weather is clear, allowing for dry soil so it does not stick to the stems and pods. After harvest, peanuts are removed from vines and transported to a peanut shelling machine for mechanical drying. They are then delivered to warehouses for cleaning, where they are stored unshelled in silos. The shelling process must be conducted carefully to avoid damaging the seeds during shell removal. Moisture is controlled to prevent the shells and kernels from becoming too brittle, which also reduces dust in the plant.

The kernels then undergo a critical dry roasting stage, which employs either batch or continuous methods. The batch method heats large quantities in a revolving oven at about 430 degrees Celsius, then roasts them uniformly at 160 degrees Celsius for 40 to 60 minutes, which is useful for peanuts with differing moisture content. The continuous method uses a hot air roaster where peanuts pass through while being rocked for even roasting, a process monitored by a photometer. Large manufacturers favour the continuous method as it lowers spoilage rates and requires less labour.

After roasting, peanuts are removed from the oven as quickly as possible and placed in a blower-cooler cylinder with suction fans to pull air through for efficient cooling, a process completed when the temperature reaches about 30 degrees Celsius. The cooled peanuts undergo blanching to remove the remaining seed coats, either by heat or water. Heat blanching uses hot air at 138 degrees Celsius for up to 20 minutes and then steam to soften and split the skins, which are removed by bristles or soft rubber belts. Water blanching, which first appeared in 1949, involves rolling kernels past stationary blades to crack the skin, a one-minute hot water bath, and then rubbing on a swinging canvas pad to remove the skins.

After blanching, peanuts are screened and inspected to eliminate burnt and rotten kernels, with blowers removing light peanuts and colour sorting machines removing discoloured ones. The final manufacturing stage is grinding, where peanuts are sent through two grinders, first for a medium grind and then for a fine grind. At the fine grind stage, salt, sugar, and a vegetable oil stabilizer are added for flavour and to maintain a homogeneous mixture, and chopped peanuts are added to produce chunky style. The finished paste is pumped into a heat exchanger to cool it to about 49 degrees Celsius before being sealed in jars, labeled, and packaged into cartons for distribution to retailers.

Types and Varieties

Peanut butter is available in several distinct types, each with different textures and ingredient profiles. Conventional peanut butter, the most common supermarket variety, contains up to ten percent salt, sugars, and hydrogenated vegetable oil for stability and sweetness. Texture defines two major categories, smooth or creamy peanut butter has a uniform, spreadable consistency often achieved with the addition of corn syrup and vegetable oil, while crunchy or chunky peanut butter includes coarsely-ground peanut fragments for extra texture. A related dish named pinda-dokkunnu existed in Suriname by 1783 and was more solid, able to be cut and served in slices like cheese.

Natural peanut butter typically contains just peanuts and a small amount of salt, sold without emulsifiers that bind the peanut oils with the paste. This allows the oil to separate, requiring stirring before use to restore a creamy texture and prevent minor separation of oil and salt. The markets for organic and artisanal peanut butter are small, with artisanal versions usually being preservative-free, additive-free, and handmade in a cottage industry-style setup first used around 1970. These artisanal butters often appeal to consumers seeking a product without stabilizers or added sugars.

A modern alternative is powdered peanut butter, a lower-calorie alternate to traditional peanut butter. It is made by pressing roasted peanuts to remove most of the oil but still retaining protein and flavor. This product can be rehydrated with water to form a paste or added directly to smoothies, protein shakes, baking, and cooking. In South Africa, the first peanut butter was produced in 1926, and Tiger Brands later manufactured it under the brand name Black Cat. In Israel, the peanut-butter-flavored puffcorn snack Bamba accounts for 25 percent of the snack market, and its consumption by infants has been linked to a low incidence of peanut allergies.

Nutritional Profile and Health Considerations

Peanut butter is a nutrient-dense food. In a 100 gram amount, smooth peanut butter supplies 597 calories and is composed of 51 percent fat, 22 percent protein, and 22 percent carbohydrates, including five percent dietary fibre, with only one percent water. The fats are a mix of saturated and monounsaturated fats, mainly oleic acid, comprising about 25 percent of the total, and polyunsaturated fat, primarily linoleic acid, at about 12 percent. It is a rich source, providing 20 percent or more of the Daily Value, of dietary fibre, vitamin E, pantothenic acid, folate, niacin, and vitamin B6.

Peanut butter is high in the dietary minerals manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, and copper. Sodium is added as salt during manufacturing. Peanut butter is a moderate source, providing 10 to 19 percent of the Daily Value, of thiamin, riboflavin, iron, and potassium. This nutritional profile supports its use as a substantial food source. It is notably used in products like Plumpy'nut, a ready-to-use therapeutic food used to fight malnutrition in famine-stricken countries.

A significant health consideration is peanut allergy, which can cause a variety of possible allergic reactions, including life-threatening anaphylaxis. Symptoms include shortness of breath, wheezing, tightening of the throat, itching, skin reactions such as hives and swelling, and digestive problems. Due to this risk, peanut butter is among common foods sometimes banned in schools. Conversely, early exposure to peanut products has been linked to a lower incidence of allergies, as seen in Israel where consumption of Bamba by infants is associated with low allergy rates.

Peanut butter also plays a positive role in global health initiatives. Plumpy'nut is approved by the World Health Organisation as a highly successful alternative to refeeding for severe malnutrition. A single pack contains 500 calories, can be stored unrefrigerated for two years, and requires no cooking or preparation, making it crucial for emergency relief. Its effectiveness and shelf stability have made it a standard tool in humanitarian aid for treating child malnutrition.

Culinary Uses and Popular Dishes

Peanut butter's primary use is as a spread on bread, toast, or crackers, most famously in the peanut butter and jelly sandwich. Its flavor combines well with other flavors, such as oatmeal, cheese, cured meats, and savory sauces. The creamy or crunchy, fatty, salty taste pairs very well with complementary soft and sweet ingredients like fruit preserves, bananas, apples, chocolate, and honey. The taste can also be enhanced by similarly salty things like bacon.

Sweet applications are numerous and include many desserts and snacks. It is used in granola, smoothies, crepes, cookies, brownies, croissants, pies, and ice cream. A popular children's snack is ants on a log, made with a celery stick acting as the log, its groove filled with peanut butter and topped with raisin ants. Other sweet treats include no-bake peanut butter cookie dough bites, peanut butter cup recreations, peanut butter and jelly cookies, and peanut butter popcorn, with recipes often designed to use an extra jar from the grocery store.

Savoury uses are equally extensive, demonstrating its versatility beyond sandwiches. Peanut butter is a key component in sauces for dishes like stir-fries, noodles such as pad thai, satay, and in dishes like the Filipino stew kare-kare. It can be used in salad dressings, soups like African peanut soup, and in marinades. Specific recipes highlight its use in summer rolls with a spicy peanut dipping sauce, broccoli slaw with a creamy peanut butter dressing, soba noodles, and even in dishes like peanut salsa macha for shrimp tacos, proving it can be used in main courses.

Beyond human consumption, peanut butter is used as a treat for animals. Peanut butter inside a hollow chew toy is a method to occupy a dog with a flavored treat. A common outdoor bird feeder is a coating of peanut butter on a pine cone with an overlying layer of bird seed. Its physical properties as a viscoelastic food, exhibiting both solid and fluid behaviors defined through rheology, make it suited for diverse applications.

Consumption, Brands, and Cultural Significance

The United States is a leading exporter and one of the largest per capita consumers of peanut butter, with January 24 designated as National Peanut Butter Day. Consumption spiked during the COVID-19 pandemic, with retail sales increasing by 75 percent in March 2020 compared to March 2019. However, per capita consumption in Canada and the Netherlands actually exceeds that of the United States, according to Jon Krampner's 2013 history of the product. This makes it a food of particular significance in the Canadian diet and pantry.

Peanut butter holds a distinct place in North American culture, often evoking childhood nostalgia, with the smell from a jar acting as a time machine back to school cafeterias. Taste preferences for smooth versus chunky, or natural versus conventional, are strongly held. Popular national brands have distinct profiles, Skippy is known for its ultra-smooth texture, robust peanut flavour, and balance of sweetness and salt, with ingredients including hydrogenated vegetable oils. Jif is similarly creamy but uses molasses for a slightly different sweetness and has been described as having an unimpeachably smooth texture and a taste reminiscent of childhood.

Among the types of peanut butter is natural peanut butter, which normally contains just peanuts and a small amount of salt. It is sold without emulsifiers, so minor separation of oil and salt may occur and requires stirring before consumption. In 1922, chemist Joseph L. Rosefield invented a process for making smooth peanut butter that kept the oil from separating. Rosefield licensed his invention to the company that created Peter Pan peanut butter in 1928. The product's nutritional value and shelf life have contributed to its status as a pantry staple.

A slang term for peanut butter in World War II was monkey butter. Peanut butter has a significant cultural presence in North America. According to Jon Krampner's 2013 book, per capita consumption of peanut butter in Canada exceeds that of the United States. The Netherlands is the largest consumer per capita in Europe. This high consumption reflects its commonplace and unique status in these food cultures.

Economic, Agricultural, and Manufacturing Context

Peanut butter production is a major global industry rooted in large-scale agriculture. As of 2012, China and India were the first and second largest producers of peanuts, with the United States ranking third. Within the U.S., Georgia and Texas are the two major peanut-producing states, and more than half of the American peanut crop is used specifically for making peanut butter. This highlights the economic importance of the product to these agricultural sectors and to food manufacturing, with peanuts planted in spring and growing in the soil after the flower bends over and penetrates the earth.

The manufacturing process is optimized for scale, efficiency, and consistency. Large producers favour continuous roasting methods over batch methods to lower spoilage rates and require less labour. The stabilization process invented by Joseph Rosefield, using partially hydrogenated oils, was important for creating a shelf-stable, non-separating product that could be mass-marketed. The final packaging process involves cooling the peanut butter in heat exchangers before sealing it in jars, which are then stored at room temperature for distribution and sale to consumers.

Peanut butter is consumed in many countries, but it is most deeply ingrained in the food cultures of North America and parts of Europe. Its production involves specialized machinery for processes like blanching and grinding. The enduring popularity of peanut butter ensures that peanut agriculture and processing remain significant economic activities. China and India are the first and second-largest producers of peanuts, while the United States is the third-largest producer.

Questions about Peanut butter

Who invented peanut butter?

While ancient Aztec and Inca civilizations made peanut paste, the modern production process was first patented by a Canadian. Marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal obtained the first patent in 1884 for a method of producing peanut butter from roasted peanuts. Later inventors like John Harvey Kellogg and Joseph L. Rosefield developed key improvements, but George Washington Carver, often mistakenly credited, did not invent it. Carver's 1916 publication on peanuts came after many methods were already patented by various pharmacists, doctors, and food scientists.

What is the difference between natural and regular peanut butter?

Natural peanut butter typically contains only peanuts and a small amount of salt, with no emulsifiers. This causes the peanut oils to separate from the solids, requiring stirring before use to restore a creamy texture. Regular or conventional peanut butter includes added ingredients like salt, sweeteners, and hydrogenated vegetable oils, which act as stabilizers to prevent oil separation and create a uniform, spreadable texture straight from the jar. Conventional types can contain up to ten percent of these added ingredients, modifying both taste and texture.

Is peanut butter healthy?

Peanut butter is a nutrient-rich food high in protein, healthy monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, fibre, and essential vitamins and minerals like vitamin E, magnesium, and phosphorus. However, it is also calorie-dense. For individuals with a peanut allergy, it can cause severe reactions including anaphylaxis. Some conventional brands contain added sugars and hydrogenated oils, so reading labels is important for making a nutritious choice. Its nutritional profile also makes it useful in therapeutic foods for combating malnutrition in crisis situations.

How should I store peanut butter and how long does it last?

Commercial, stabilised peanut butter is designed to be stored at room temperature in a pantry. Once opened, keeping the jar tightly sealed is recommended. Natural peanut butter, due to the lack of stabilizers, may benefit from refrigeration after stirring, which can slow oil separation. Refrigeration can make all peanut butter firmer and less spreadable. For specialised products like Plumpy'nut, used in humanitarian aid, the shelf life is two years without refrigeration, which is part of its design for use in difficult conditions.

What are some savoury uses for peanut butter beyond sandwiches?

Peanut butter is highly versatile in savoury cooking. It is commonly used as a base for sauces in Asian-inspired stir-fries, noodle dishes like pad thai, and satay. It can be incorporated into salad dressings, soups like African peanut soup, stews like the Filipino kare-kare, and marinades. Its creamy, salty, and nutty flavour complements ingredients like soy sauce, ginger, garlic, and chilli peppers. Specific recipes include peanut salsa macha for tacos, savoury peanut butter noodles, and as a dressing for broccoli slaw with tofu, offering many nutty and savoury options.

Sources: Wikipedia and current public reporting, checked by the Novello Desserts desk. Last updated 2026-10-19.